A brief history of Swiss manually operated military rifles

Swiss military rifles: muzzle loaders to straight pulls

This article is a brief overview on the history of Swiss military rifles from just before the foundation of the new Federal state until their last straight pull rifle. This is not an exhaustive list of every development; I have done my best to make my overview thorough while still manageable to read.

This may take a few sessions to get through, I recommend bookmarking this page if you get partially through but need to come back later.

This article has 3 main sections: muzzle loaders to breach loaders, repeating rifles and the Vetterli pattern, and straight pull rifles.

Separate timelines do overlap sometimes in this story, but they development of the 3 main concepts are separated for better organization.

Early years of the confederation, muzzle loading muskets to breech loading rifles

We begin during the period of regeneration following the failure of Napoleon and fallout of the French Revolution. Under the Federal Treaty of August 1815, the Federal diet had a limited role in the affairs of the 22 cantons of the Swiss confederation. One of these limited roles was a common defence. The defencive weapons held by the people of the cantons and communes were not standardized. The Infanteriegewehr 1842 was adopted as one of the first standardized Swiss firearms. It was a percussion cap primed muzzleloading musket that fired 18mm spherical projectiles, typical of for the time. They were used heavily in the upcoming civil war between pro and anti union cantons.

After the Sonerbund Civil War, the New Swiss Confederation was founded in 1848. The maintained purpose of the central government is an explicitly defined set of limited roles. In 1851, the Eidgenössischer Stutzer (or Feldstutzer) was agreed upon as the new standard. The 1851 firearm featured a rifled barrel which used a 10.4mm projectile. Adopting a rifle as their standard firearm and with smaller projectile was revolutionary: the rifle capable at distances where the musket was virtually useless, the smaller projectile was capable of a flatter trajectory with a smaller explosive behind it.

The Helvetic Constitution of 1848 was heavily influenced by the American and French revolts. While strengthening and defining the power and role of the Swiss central government, it also declared the protection of individual rights.

SIG is awarded their first firearms contract in 1859 for the 42/59 Prélaz-Burnand system, it is not a new firearm but an upgrade system for the Infanteriegewehr 1842. Rifling groovers were cut into the smooth bore and improved sights were affixed. The 42/59 system supplemented the production of 1851 Feldstutzers, but Swiss military leadership would soon realize that they needed greater firepower to keep up with their peers.

Taking a step backwards to early 1830s, the development of the Dreyse breech loading “needle rifle” was beginning; it had been adopted by military peer Prussia in 1841. Though the Dreyse had the quickest loading speed of any rifle at the time, weakening of the essential components affected reliability and safety during prolonged usage. The 1864 Second Schleswig War demonstrated the capability of the newer Model 1862 Dreyse Rifle and proof of this concept in general. The Swiss would soon conclude that their muzzle loader needed replacement to match or exceed the capabilities of the Dreyse and similar contemporaries.

On the 3rd of July 1866, the Prussians defeated the Austrians in the battle of Königgrätz (Hradec Kralove in modern day Czechia). Once again, the breech loading concept proves to be quite effective in combat. Recognizing the need to maintain a capability beyond their military peers it was resolved by the Swiss Federal assembly, on the 20th of July, that all muzzleloading military rifles must be replaced with repeating rifles. The process of adopting such a rifle began, Winchester model 1866 lever operated magazine fed rifles quickly arrived for trials by the Army. In the meantime, the search begins for a temporary solution to regain the advantage in firepower.

Two new rifle cartridges were developed sometime in this period, the (10mm) .41 Swiss rimfire (which would later be used in their repeater) and an 18mm Swiss rimfire. Conversion of 1851 10mm Feldstutzers and 1842/59 18mm Infanteriegewehr Prélaz-Burnands to breechload these new cartridges using the Milbank-Amsler system begins. They are known today as the 1851/67 and 1842/59/67, respectively. The Federal assembly then orders the purchase of about 15,000 US Peabody tilting-block breech-loading rifles from Providence tool company in the .41 Swiss cartridge to supplement the conversions, they are designated the M1867 and M1867/77.

Muzzle loading and Breech loading rifle timeline

1815 (7 August) Federal treaty is agreed up following Napolean’s expulsion from Switzerland. This treaty rejected Napolean’s Act of Mediation and established a transitionary Federal Union.

1830s Beginning of development on the Dreyse Needle rifle breech loading pattern.

1842 Infanteriegewehr musket pattern is agreed upon as one of the first standardized Swiss firearms.

1847 (3–29 November) Sonderbund civil war occurs between pro-union and anti-union cantons.

1848 (12 September) Ratification of the First Constitution formed the Confederation Helvetica that we have today. This document was influenced by the American and French revolts.

1851 Eidgenössischer Stutzer (Feldstutzer) model 1851 muzzleloading rifle replaces the 1842 Infanteriegewehr musket as the standard Swiss military firearm.

1859 SIG is awarded their first firearms contract in 1859 to upgrade 1842 Infanteriegewehrs (and possibly earlier 18mm muskets that had been converted from flintlock to caplock) from unrifled barrels to rifled barrels using the Prélaz-Burnand system.

1864 Second Schleswig War demonstrated the capability of the improved model 1862 Dryese breechloader.

1866 (3 July) In the Battle of Königgrätz, Prussians used Dreyse breechloading rifle to defeat the Austrians.

1866 (20 July) It was resolved by the Federal assembly that the Swiss military will adopt repeating rifles.

1866 (October) Winchester ships model 1866 lever repeaters in response to the resolution, they are trialed by the Swiss military but never adopted.

1867 (April 24) Federal assembly orders that all 1851 Feldstutzers are converted to the Milbank-Amsler breech loading system for the (10mm) .41 Swiss rimfire cartridge. They are known today as the 1851/67. The .41 Swiss rimfire cartridge was later used in the first Swiss repeater.

1867 (April 29) After debate, the federal assembly agrees that it is worth converting the 1842/59 Infanteriegewehr/Prélaz-Burnand 18mm rifles to the Milbank-Amsler system as well (to take an 18mm rimfire cartridge). They were clearly converted with less priority than the 10mm 1851 Feldstudzer rifles since more unchanged 1842/59 rifles exist today. The converted 18mm rifles are known as the 1842/59/67.

1867 (14 June) The Swiss federal assembly orders about 15,000 US Peabody breech loading rifles in .41 Swiss Rimfire from Providence Tool company. They are intended to supplement the muzzle loaders which would be unavailable during their conversion.

The repeating rifles and the Vetterli bolt action

The development of the first repeating rifles was a long and complicated process, but is relevant to the origin of the Vetterli. I will simplify the development, leaving further details in the timeline. The first tube magazine was patented in 1849 by William Hunt, part of the Volition rifle. In 1855 Daniel Wesson and Horace Smith reworked this patent into the Volcanic Rifle; it uses a “modern” lever but is prone to gas leakage. Both these rifles were failures.

Winchester purchases the Volcanic Rifle Company, they develop the .44 Henry brass rimfire cartridge. This cartridge fixes the leakage problem: the brass case obturates when fired, momentarily sealing against the walls of the chamber. With a few tweaks, the Volcanic rifle becomes the Henry rifle. The Henry rifle has a few issues, none the less it is the first repeating rifle to be commercially successful. Following the Henry is the Winchester model 1866 “Yellow Boy”, the Henry refined. The biggest changes in the model 1866 were the addition of an easy-to-use rear loading gate and a wooden forward handguard. The model 1866 preformed well during its Swiss Army trial, but Winchester was never able to make a deal acceptable to the Swiss.

In 1868 the Vetterli system was adopted. The capability of the Vetterli far exceeded the Dreyse, Milbank-Amsler, and Peabody breechloaders. The defining feature was the tubular magazine and lifting elevator, reworked from the 1866 Winchester. The previously designed .41 Swiss Rimfire cartridge was used.

The Swiss had accepted the foreign Peabody, why didn’t they accept the 1866 Winchester when the adoption of a repeater was such a pressing matter? The adoption of the conversions and imported breechloaders was transitionary, it gave the Swiss a short respite to get the repeater project just right. The Federal assembly intended to increase the military’s capability above and beyond their peers through their July 1866 resolution to adopt repeaters, they were the first European nation to do this: they planned to maintain par with their peers for the time while keeping the long run in sight. The lever movement of the 1866 Winchester action was not suitable for prone shooting and the .44 Henry pistol cartridge was too limited in range. The Vetterli was in a class of its own as the most technologically capable rifle on the planet at the time, it combined a relatively far-reaching cartridge with a prone-operable repeating action. The first Vetterli pattern was adopted in 1868 and only takes a few minor improvements through its service, it is not replaced until 1896.

Multiple versions of the Vetterli rifle pattern: infantry, carbine, and cavalry. (Top to bottom)

Repeating rifle and Vetterli timeline

1848 (12 September) Patent US5763A (link) is granted for a lever opening breach loading rifle that “automatically” feeds percussion caps from a tubular magazine. This rifle takes paper cartridges. Ultimately a failure.

1849 (21 August) Patent US6663A (link) is granted for the Volition Repeater, the first rifle to load “rocket ball” Patent US5701A (link) caseless cartridges. The rocket balls were fed from a tubular magazine by actuation the first lever and priming powder is fed separately with the actuation of second lever. Ultimately a failure.

1849 (25 December) Patent US6973A (link) approved for Jennings’ improved lever action rifle, loading a rocket ball from the tube and loading primer pill from the reservoir are performed by movement of a single lever. Ultimately a failure, almost all of those purchased are converted to standard muzzleloaders.

1855 The patents were reworked by Daniel Wesson and Horrace Smith; they incorporated the Volcanic arms company. They bring the Volcanic rifle and pistol to market with commonly recognizable levers, patent US10535A (link) approved 14 February 1854. This system uses a new version of rocket balls, now incorporating primers. These cartridges are weak (firing at around only 600 feet/second for the rifle) and the system is prone to gas leakage. Ultimately a failure.

1856 New Haven arms company (predecessor to Winchester) purchases Volcanic Arms.

1857 Smith and Wesson developed the first true brass rimfire firearms cartridge, the .22 short.

1860 Henry rifle and the .44 Henry rimfire cartridge were developed by the New Haven arms company. Commercial Success.

1866 The ”Yellow Boy” model 1866 Winchester repeater comes to market, a refined Henry. Added rear loading gate and handguard, removed external follower. Commercially successful and predecessor to the 1873 “gun that won the west”.

1866 (20 July) It was resolved by the Federal assembly that the Swiss military will adopt repeating rifles.

1866 (October) Winchester ships model 1866 lever repeaters in response to the resolution, they are trialed by the Swiss military but never adopted.

1868 The Vetterli rifle entered Swiss service.

1878 Multiple minor improvements to the Vetterli were developed into a new model.

Straight pull rifles

The limitations of the Vetterli rifles revolved around speed of operation and chamber pressure.

The most apparent limitation to the speed of operation was in cycling, the straight pull action of the Mannlicher and Schmidt-Rubin took only a natural 2 movements (back then fourth) to cycle the action rather than the Vetterli’s 4 movements (unlock, back, forwards, lock).

The second speed limitation of the Vetterli was due to the magazine. The tube magazine could only be replenished by a single round at a time, replenishing loose cartridges into the tube while in combat was impractical. The new system used box magazines with rounds stacked down from the top; multiple cartridges could be loaded into magazines at once by stripping them from connecting chargers (akin to clips). A separate advantage of this design was that the ogive (nose) of the projectiles was better protected by stacking than placed end to end, this would theoretically improve consistency at longer ranges.

The chamber pressure and chambering of the Vetterli were limited by the design and dimensions of the rifle. The two locking lugs at the rear of the Vetterli’s bolt dictated the headspace by means of their actuation with the rear of the frame. The Vetterli was not intended to manage a higher chamber pressure than the blackpowder .41 rimfre, the feeding port on the side of the body was not intended to accept any longer cartridges.

The story of the straight pull starts in 1870 in the United States with a tube feeding carbine designed by Orvill M. Robinson. This rifle had a sliding breach design and a rear tilting locking lug. The design and stock were purchased by Winchester in a killer acquisition. In 1886 the Mannlicher straight pull rifle entered Austrian service, the mechanism is extremely similar to Robinson’s design, improved with a bolt handle and a stacked magazine. We can speculate that Ferdinand Mannlicher may have known of Robinson’s design, had visited the United States between the time it was patented and the completion of his own rifle.

Robinson’s design and Mannlicher’s design (left and right). The tilting locking lug is circled with red on both. Note the rear tabs on the Robinson’s design (blue) vs the modern bolt handle on Mannlicher’s design (green) to manipulate the mechanism.

This straight pulling manipulation of the Mannlicher design most certainly influenced Swiss Colonel Schmidt’s model 1889 Schmidt-Rubin rifle. The design was an improvement on the Mannlicher as it used a rotating bolt that could better handle more powerful smokeless powder. It uses the GP90 cartridge designed by Eduard Rubin which featured a steel cap, the first predecessor to the full metal jacket (first seen in the Swiss 1911 cartridge). The barrel is covered by a full-length wooden handguard, but the rifles in this lineage are made with such tolerances that the shrouded barrels are free floating underneath. The S-R 1889 magazine fit 12 cartridges with a cut off for single feeding, per the Swiss military doctrine of the time.

While the Schmidt-Rubin1889 was intended to handle higher pressures than the Vetterli or Mannlicher, the locking lug design used to accommodate the pressure was not perfect. Like the Vetterli (which used weaker black powder cartridges), the locking lugs were at the rear of the bolt and locked into the rear of the receiver. The problem was exacerbated by the increased length of S-R’s bolt, the design was mechanically disadvantageous. Headspacing issues would become expected after extended use. Similar to the Hugo Borchart and his C93 pistol, Colonel Rudolf Schmidt was unable or unwilling to make the changes necessary to fulfill the potential of his design. Like Georg Luger, Colonel Vogelsang modified his predecessor’s design to remedy the underlying issue. The chief difference between the story of the C93 pistol and the original Schmidt-Rubin was that the S-R rifle was in military service for 7 years while the C93 was never widely issued.

In 1890, a new Mannlicher carbine was introduced with a front locking rotating bolt; mechanically superior the 1886 Mannlicher and 1889 S-R. It is not impossible that the designers of the 1890 Mannlicher Carbine borrowed from and improved Schmidt’s model 1889 design. The Swiss cavalry adopted a specially made “Swiss cavalry Mannlicher”, with this new bolt, in 1893. The reasoning behind adopting a foreign design was that the 1889 S-R had such a long bolt that the rifle would still be too long for calvary use even if the barrel was shorted. Furthermore, catastrophic explosions due to headspacing issues of the S-R 1889 had become a serious concern that was documented more frequently over the time it was in service. This Swiss Mannlicher did not last long, it was replaced in 1905 by a cavalry version of the new 89/96.

The Swiss 89/96 pattern was Colonel Vogelsang’s solution to the issues with Schmidt’s design. The name of the model implies that it was a retrofit to the M1889 but that is misleading. The bolt was redesigned, shortened with the locking lugs further toward the middle. A new frame was designed to accommodate the new changes in the bolt. Headspacing issues were much less common with this model, all following Swiss straight pull military rifles used this receiver and bolt until 1931. Other than the receiver, bolt, and trigger, all other parts were virtually identical to the model 1889. The new stock was clearly made of the same blank but with small changes in inletting.

1911 saw the introduction of two nearly identical rifles, the native K11 and the model 96/11 retrofit. The 96/11 was a retrofit of the 89/96 to match the K11. The first change was a rechambering from the GP90 7.5×53.5 to the GP11 7.5×55 full metal jacket. The capacity of the magazine was reduced from 12 to 6 rounds to reduce the profile, the magazine cutoff was removed. The volley sight was replaced with a slider similar to the Kalashnikov. The 96/11 stocks retained the rounded buttplate of the 89/96 and added a rear grip nub. The non-conversion K11s had a flat buttplate and came from the factory carved with the sharper angled grip.

The K31 (model 1931) was the culmination of the Swiss straight pull series. K31 came standard with a slightly shortened barrel and a drastically shortened bolt. The newly designed bolt locked at the front of the receiver, with a new receiver to accommodate these changes. The magazine capacity was reduced to 6 rounds, the sights remained the same as the K11. This rifle was officially replaced by a self-loading rifle in 1957 but remained in reserve service until the 1970s.

There were a few attempts at making the K31 into a squad designated marksman rifle. The largely unsuccessful K31/42 and K31/43 program retrofit left-offset magnifying optics to the receivers of K31s hand selected for their outstanding barrels. The final K31 derivative was the ZfK55, this rifle was redesigned from the ground up for its role. The some 4000 Zfk55s built feature a heavier barrel, a compensator similar to the German FG42, a fixed power magnifying optic, and a bipod. The receiver and bolt body of the ZfK55 were unique, the action was rotated 15 degrees to the right so a charger could be inserted under the centre mounted scope. The magazine fits at an angle to reflect this. The design retains the original positioning of the bolt handle. The Zfk55s were the last “K31s” to exit primary military service.

Straight pull rifle timeline

1870 (24 May) Patent US103504A (link) approved for Orvill M. Robinson’s sliding breach design, believed to be the first straight pull rifle. It uses a rear tilting locking block similar to the Mannlicher 1886 and 1888. All intellectual property pertaining to Robinson’s repeater work was purchased by Winchester to prevent competition against their own repeaters.

1886 Mannlicher m1886 entered Austrian service. The tilting locking block design is quite similar to Robinson’s. It is known that Ferdinand Mannlicher was in the United States between the time of Robinson’s patent and before he finished designing the m1886, it is possible he knew of Robinson’s design.

1889 The original Schmidt-Rubin rifle and GP90 7.5×53.5 smokeless cartridge entered Swiss service.

1890 Mannlicher 1890 Carbine enters Austro-Hungarian service, the m1886s tilting locking block is replaced by a stronger front locking rotating bolt.

1893 Mannlicher model 1893 (“the Swiss Mannlicher”) adopted by Swiss cavalry, features front locking rotating bolt.

1896 The “Schmidt-Rubin” by Colonel Vogelsgang, model 89/96, enters service as a replacement to the Schmidt-Rubin 1889. The locking lugs moved from the rear to the middle and the bolt is slightly shortened .

1903 GP90/03 75×53.5 cartridge enter service. It is a GP90 with non-corrosive primers.

1905 The model 1905 (based on the 89/96 receiver) was adopted by Swiss cavalry to replace the “Swiss Mannlicher”.

1911 The Gewehr 11, Karabiner 11, and GP11 7.5×55 cartridge enter service. The 89/96 to 96/11 long rifle and 05/11 carbine upgrade program began.

1931 The K31 was adopted.

1933 The K31 entered production.

1942 The K31/42 designated marksman rifle retrofit program was not a major success.

1943 The K31/43 designated marksman rifle retrofit program was not a major success.

1944-195? Multiple unsuccessful K31 based designated marksman rifles were developed during this period.

1955 The ZfK55 was adopted as a designated marksman rifle.

1957 The Sig SG 510 (Sturmgewehr 57) entered service for active duty troops as a universal weapon. It fulfilled the roles of infantry rifle, grenadier rifle, light machine gun, submachine gun, and designated marksman rifle.

1970s The last K31s left reserve service. The last ZfK55s left primary military service.

Replacing the K31, the automatic multipurpose rifle

After WWII the Swiss knew they had to adopt a new self loading rifle to remain competitive with peer militaries. Good marksmanship was not enough, they required a superior volume of firepower. Sig SG 510 or Sturmgewehr 57 was designed to fulfill all roles (infantry rifle, marksman rifle, light machine gun, grenadier). The story of the Swiss straight pull action rifles does not end with the rise of the self loading rifles though.

More about the development of Swiss self loading rifles will be detailed in this article.

The K31 today

Since the replacement of the K31, the surplus rifles have been distributed from the military to private hands. Many have been exported, especially to the United States. Today, a used K31 can be purchased in the Swiss Confederation for about 250 CHF, about 255 USD.

The K31 and its cartridge are ubiquitous among Swiss firearms enthusiasts, 1000s of rounds of GP11 are shot out of K31s at Swiss ranges every weekend. K31s are most commonly used in Switzerland for the 300 meter target discipline, there is a 300 meter range in almost every town in Switzerland. K31s are also used by Swiss (and Americans) for hunting.

Enter, the K31-XXI (K31 for the 21st century)

I stumbled across the K31-XXI when researching the K31 platform after winning a set of three of them from Rock Island Auction company. One of these three rifles had a refinished stock, no original sling, but a near mint bore. This rifle was a perfect candidate for a chassis, the K31-XXI was the solution.

The Swiss designed K31-XXI Generation 1 chassis is a monolithic body manufactured in the Chez Republic from aircraft aluminum. It is installed without any permanent modification to the K31. The picatinny spec mounting rail connects to the rear sight and a muzzle device adapter clamps behind the front sight, as with the chassis both are installed without permanent modifications.

I was very lucky to have the opportunity to visit one of the creators of this kit in Geneva Switzerland to learn more about Swiss rifles and to shoot the K31 in the standard and XXI configuration for the first time.

Shooting the K31 with and without this kit is like night vs day. The original k31 has quite the kick, you really have to hold on tight and brace for impact with every shot. An amateur should have no issue hitting a circle target at 300 meters with instruction, but the recoil and handling really take some getting used to and can quickly cause fatigue. With the K31 XXI kit, the handling is much more natural and the recoil is easier to manage. The recoil pad is further inline with the barrel, the specially designed muzzle break makes compounds this advantage. The K31 XXI barrel mounted muzzle thread device is also compatible with any 30 calibre suppressor. The weight with the chassis is reduced from 4kg to 3.44kg. Along with the increased ease of use, the new kit looks very cool.

What’s old is new.

Photographs

Bolts

Vetterli Bolt, note the rear locking lugs

Vetterli to K31-XXI

A K31 turned into an Obrez pistol. Likely made from a K31 that had a completely ruined bore.

A K31 turned into a smoke or teargas launcher. I would believe the bore on this one was no longer serviceable as well. Note that there is some sort of pressure adjustment valve for different ranges.

Timelines of Swiss muzzle loading, breech loading, bolt action, and straight pull bolt actions rifles.

Note: separate timelines do overlap, they are separated by firearm type for better organization.